Twitter has changed the way information and data are circulated among a lot of users. Most of them are spreading through the societies, because certain thoughts and ideas are going to be imposed. Authorities have found this great powerful tool can successfully make common people make decisions as they wish to do. It seems that more than 500 million tweets are sent daily from 320 million active users across the world and it increases everyday (Twitter. com). This unbelievable number of tweets can create new groups and shape new ideologies among active users. A widespread stream of quickly communicated suppositions and thoughts might lead to uncontrollable event and supervise the life style of millions of people around the world. It might also interfere with political affairs and drastic changes happen due to intentional spread of thoughts putting policy makers in severe troubles. Amazingly, journalists make use of this tool as a monitoring system to find private and fascinating news about celebrities and famous sportsmen and women. They want to feed their media enough firsthand information to attract a lot of readers and users. They want to sell more, if they can have direct access to popular figures’ twitter page, their missions are completely done; that is why tweeter is important to them. The present study aims to study and analyze some of the issues raised by critical discourse analytical approach to the study of speeches, e. g. tweets. Since social networks have given a lot of opportunities to people put forward, acquire, express and reproduce their views, thoughts, ideologies and even their own daily routine activities largely by text or talk, a discourse analytical study of these language interactions seem to be necessary and most releVant. The more people become familiar with social media, the less they are vulnerable to be misled by indecent authorities. As present societies are now experiencing different ways for language interactions, the role and the influence of social networks, e. g. Twitter, are undeniable and need to be analyzed. The study of tweets has made the linguists believe that twitting is a kind of social action and leads to processing social issues and if tweet lexicons are chosen appropriately, they can have big effecton followers’ decisions and cause shapingideological groups. Houston and colleagues (2015) firmly believe that tweets can form social actions and guide the societies towards certain directions. The discourse analysis of tweets will reveal the type of interactions that twitter users have. It can also represent the way in which knowledge and power are produced. In other words, speech order, discourse and discourse analysis are to be seen as social productions that have changing and dynamic forces. They can have influences over social values and interactions, whether positive or negative (Ziahosseiny, 2012, p. 97). Of course, this kind of discourse analysis has to be certainly social-critical, because it has to find the roots of social problems (Ziahosseiny, 2012, p. 98). That is why we have made use of critical discourse analysis to clarify the ways by which realities are represented in social networks. Although, in this paper, the main attention has been given to the discourse analysis, its theoretical structure is based on different disciplines, especially on Van Dijk triangulation of discourse, cognition and society; they are necessary for analyzing sociolinguistics phenomena. Social sciences and philosophy have made the best use of this framework and they can critically explain social actions. These can also play an important role in reshaping the traditional approaches to social events as those approaches cannot fully and adequately elaborate on the sociocognitive nature and structures of ideologies and their discursive reproduction. In the present study, Trump’ s tweets are analyzed based on the aforementioned considerations related to Van Dijk Model. To do that, 400 of Trump’ s tweets from his twitter page, between January and March 2018, were studied. Then, based on linguistic signs and strategies put forward by Van Dijk (2003 & 2006), the tweets were analyzed carefully. Those linguistic signs and strategies are: classification, polarization, generalization, distancing, implications, hyperbole, counterfactual, contrast, lexicalization, evidentiality, comparison, fallacy and euphemism. The findings show that Trump uses these strategies to create his own ideology. They also demonstrate that Trump makes use of hyperbole instead of logical reasoning. The data indirectly prove that tweeter followers are constantly exposed to new ideologies; also, the dialogues have their own prompt influences on societies, make new social theories, play basic roles in people’ s life style and create new ideologies in groups.

Assessing different discourse levels provides new perception and shows the interaction between language and ideological structures. Since discourses causing ideology hegemony are considered as the determining factors in reproducing national identity, national anthem of each company is assumed to have an important role in recognizing it. Van Dijk, who considers ideology as a basis for common social representation, has provided a Model for critical discourse analysis that can be a proper framework for investigating identity reproduction in each country’ s national anthem. The present study aimed to discover discourse strategies of Arabic countries’ national anthems, located at LeVant area (Iraq, Palestine, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon), which leads to presenting national identity in language. Therefore, a descriptive-analysis method and Van Dijk’ s Model were used to collect and analyze the discourses. The results indicated that foregrounding positives points and backgrounding negative points form 78% of the mentioned anthems discourse system. Furthermore, meaning and propositional structures are the most prominent levels of discourse in the anthems.

This study was an attempt to provide a comprehensive Model for summary writing based on the Model of Van Dijk’ s concept of macrostructures. The effectiveness of the Model was examined in a genre-based quasi-experimental study with the data collection procedure lasting a semester. The participants included 60 female English learners divided into two experimental and control groups. The results of the study revealed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in the posttest which was mainly due to the potential role the treatment had in increasing the learners’ structural awareness in order to help them find the most important parts of the texts, i. e. those relating to the main idea of the text and disregard the less releVant ones. The results of this study contributed to the understanding of the genre-based Model and that English learners could get the essence of a given text by only understanding the gist and comprehending some sentences in a text. English learners could realize that all of the words and sentences in a text have a responsibility of conveying a particular message and that there is no need to memorize or remember every individual information in a text.

This study, based on Van Dyke's Model (1998), examines the issue of which backgrounding and foregrounding in Saudi Arabia's al-Riyadh is based on which linguistic tools, and which self and other groups are in this newspaper and how are they represented? The three articles of the newspaper, written after the nuclear deal, form the data of this study. This article, by descriptive-analytic method, based on Van Dyke's (1998) Model, aims to examine the lexical choices, the naming, and the representation of social actors to achieve the ideological square of Van Dijk. Iran's nuclear deal and Iranian government and politicians are negatively represented in all of these articles and are in other group. Iran seeks to protect terrorists from undermining stability in the region, international peace and security, and Iran's nuclear energy is a military, non-peaceful and stimulating instrument to achieve these goals.

The discourse of literary texts can be viewed from a variety of perspectives and all the dimensions of their various levels can be evaluated. Discourse analysis provides an opportunity for a deep understanding of the text. It helps highlight the author’ s discourse and linguistic interactions with ideological structures. The parodies of Jerir and Akhtal are among the texts of Arabic literature based on foregrounding and backgrounsing. These two poets use specific discursive tools in most of their parodies, seeking to foreground their own identity and to background the identity of their rival. This paper discusses some principles of critical discourse analysis, such as the explicit socio-political stance of discourse analysts, and focuses on the dominance of the elite and institutions as they are enacted, legitimated, or reproduced by text and speech. One of the crucial elements of this analysis of the relations between power and discourse is the patterns of access to (public) discourse for different social groups. This article argues that in order to be able to relate power and discourse in an explicit way, we need the “ cognitive interface” of Models, knowledge, attitudes, ideologies and other social representations of the social mind, which also relate the individual and the social, and the micro-and the macro-levels of social structure. This argument is illustrated with an analysis of parliamentary debates about ethnic affairs. The article attempts to refer to the “ ideological square” of Van Dijk in order to check out the discursive levels of two parodies by Akhtal and Jerir. The results demonstrate that highlighting negative aspects of the other is of a very high frequency in both texts (66 percent in Jerir’ s and 71 percent in Akhtal’ s). The difference is that Jerir has been more successful in the use of discursive levels of meaning, formal structures, and grammar.

Introduction: Criticism, power and ideology are among the common concepts among all dominant approaches in critical discourse analysis. The purpose of critical discourse analysis is to reveal the hidden ideological structures in internal and external layers of the texts. Partition Literature Discourse deals with dissolution of British Raj and division of Indian subcontinent. In his novel Train to Pakistan (1956), Khushwant Singh (1915-2014), the founder of “, Partition Literature”, , has shown the fundamental role of power structures in the representation of social ideologies. He has made "linguistic innovations" in English language through “, Loan Translation”, , “, Semantic Indianization”, and “, Anglicized Native Idiomatic Expressions”, . In line with Khushwant Singh’, s ideas, Van Dijk (1997) believes that critical discourse analysis is is theory-oriented rather than subject-oriented, and this theorizing should be aimed at understanding social inequalities. The hypothesis of this research, considering three variables namely, loaner dialects, discourse strategies and translation strategies, is that Khushwant Singh has priorized the technique of “, Calque”,from Indian dialect in order to preserve cultural elements of “, Source Language”,in “, Target Language”,and enrich English as the borrower language. In other words, Singh has tried to nativize English language by using linguistic elements. Review of Literature and Methodology: Conducting research on critical discourse analysis has a long record in literature, history, psychology and linguistics. However, no research has been done on Khushwant Singh and “, Indian Partition Literature”,based on Van Dijk’, s Model of critical discourse analysis. A small number of articles on the subject of “, Indian Partition Literature”,are merely political or historical in nature. Van Dijk’, s Model of critical discourse analysis include six general components “, Semantic”, , “, Syntax”, , “, Stylistic”, , “, Argumentation”, , “, Rhetoric”,Speech Act”,(Action and Interaction) strategies(Kasaei, 2014: 22). These strategies reveal the ideologies of speakers in surface and hidden layers of the text. Van Dijk’, s ideological square deals with social, cultural and psychological aspects of human behavior. It is shaped on four main principles, namely, “, Emphasis on positive representation of the in-group”, , “, Emphasis on negative representation of the out-group”, , “, De-emphasis of the negative properties of the in-group”,and “, De-emphasis of the positive properties of the out-group”,(Van Dijk, 1998: 267). In this study we seek to show Khushwant Singh’, s language innovations and the effects of Indian native dialects in Train to Pakistan (1956) with a multidisciplinary approach. Besides, based on Van Dijk’, s Model of critical discourse analysis, the multifaceted relations between language, culture and society in the selected novel will be investigated. Discussion: 4. 1. Rhetorical Structures: In this historical novel, Khushwant Singh presents a realistic picture of India's post-independence conflicts in Engliah language by making use of rhetorical strategies and adopting calques from Indian dialect. Van Dijk defines social cognition as “, system of mental representations and processing of group members”,(Van Dijk, 1998: 18). Rhetorical strategies comprise an important part of the discourse context at macro level, which Van Dijk considers based on the conceptual meaning of cognition and a manifestation of the mental image of a communication situation. Generally, this is the the same goal that rhetorical structures pursue for “, ideological backgrounding”,in the long-term memory of human society. 4. 1. 1. Simile By utilizing figures of speech such as simile in various situations, Khushwant Singh highlights the shortcomings of his own religious community and Muslims to the same extent. He makes use of “, Innovative Similies”,which are derived from Indian language: Table. 1 Rhetorical Strategy of Simile in the Novel Original Text You snored like a railway engine. (P. 64) Persian Literary Translation مثل موتور راه آهن خروپف کردی Translated Text خر و پفت مثل سوت قطار بلند شد. (ص. 124) Indian Dialect aapane rel injan kee tarah kharraate lie आ, प, न,र, ल,इ, ज, न,क, ी,त, र, ह,ख, र, र, ा, ट,ल, ि, ए,آپن رل انجن ک تره کرات لییه In the novel, the simile phrase “, Like a railway engine”,is equal to “, like a bear”,in Standard English. Khushwant Singh has used its Indian equivalence,، “, rel injan (र, ल,इ, ज, न, )”,to localize the English language. 4. 2. Semantic Structures: 4. 2. 1. Distancing Semantic indianization is one of Khushwant Singh’, s language innovations, which he often uses to depicting religious distancing and ideological differences in Indian society. Table. 2 Semantic Strategy of Distancing in the Novel Original Text We cannot really play this stabbing game. (P. 18) Persian Literary Translation ما هندوها واقعا نمیتوانیم این بازی چاقوکشی را انجام دهیم Translated Text این چیزا در مرام ما هندوها نیست. (ص. 29) Indian Dialect ham vaastav mein chhura ghompane ka yah khel nahin khel sakate ह, म,व, ा, स, त, व,म,छ, र, ा,घ, ो, प, न,क, ा,य, ह,ख, ल,न, ह, ी,ख, ल,स, क, त,هم واستاو م چورا گمپانه کا ی کل نهی کل ساکته Khushwant Singh has selected “, stabbing game”,for the English text by adopted the descriptive composition of “, chhura ghompane (छ, र, ा,घ, ो, प, न,क, ा, )”,from Indian language. This kind of selection is in line with Van Dijk’, s ideological square(2006)and, intentionally or unintentionally, institutionalizes the distance between Hindus and Muslims. Conclusion: Train to Pakistan (1956), masterpiece of Indian Partition Literature, is a “, Hybrid Text”,and a combination of different dialects and cultures. Khushwant Singh’, s frequent and conscious use of “, Calque”,in the novel Train to Pakistan, reflects the author's style and intention which should be taken into account in the translation process and the manner of transferring it to the translated text. He utilizes the “, Global Language”,of English as a powerful tool to introduce the Indian cultural values and the structure of the native dialects of his country. Discourses, signs and linguistic morphemes in Train to Pakistan remind the native atmosphere of India for the audience and have a great impact in localizing and hybridizing of its the English text. Singh has used various techniques such as calque, modulation, euphemism and substitution to preserve the beauty of words. These techniques paly a key role in identifying the socio-cultural differences known in two linguistic societies. The overt or hidden ideologies in the discourse of this novel reproduce in-group or out-group social polarities. Characters’,discources in the novel comply with Van Dijk’, s ideological strategy in micro and macro levels. Khushwant Singh blames all social classes for disrupting peaceful coexistence. His literary masterpiece is a clear mirror of the dual human nature and a reflection of the structure of social ideology, which plays a tremendous role in promoting world peace.

Iran-Japan Competition in Asian Nations Cup 2019. This match was selected for analysis due to the large number of television viewers, being in a particular time, the repeated failures in previous periods and the acceptable performance in the matches of this era. But the match ended with a 3-0 defeat for Iran.  The question was what strategies broadcasters used to report this event? And how did these strategies change after changing the outcome of the game?Methods: This qualitative research was done with discourse analysis method. Analyzes were performed by using Van Dijk’s theoretical Model (2004) in the framework of critical discourse analysis considering macro and micro levelsResults: Analysis according to macro level of Van Dijk square represented that Emphasizing on the positive point about “self”. (representing Us positively (has the highest frequency among other properties. The frequency of macro and micro levels strategies also changes with the outcome of the game. Reporter also used micro strategies of “lexicalization”, “victimization” and “dramatization” and “consensus” in order to manage the minds of the audience.  Conclusion: The ambition of the national TV has been to keep motivation and to overcome feeling failure and hopelessness and after an undesirable outcome, tries to modify and justify the situation.

As two political and religious poles in the Middle East, Iran and Saudi Arabia are considered always the traditional competitors in expansion and stability of the regional power. The relationship between these two countries has faced ups and downs in different eras due to the different reasons. Their relationships are sometimes based on cooperation policy, sometimes competition and conflict and sometimes like recent years (since the beginning of the Syria crisis) based on direct argument between the authorities of both states, stopped relations and proxy conflicts in third countries. Recognizing the discourse strategies of Saudi Arabia press which play a significant and inspiring role for the press of other Arabian countries can be a way to predict the political and discourse-based behavior of Saudi Arabia as a contradictory discourse against Iran. With regards to its antiquity, professional team and simultaneous publishing in several points across the world, Saudi Arabia Al-Hayat newspaper is from among the most influencing media of this country in managing the media war against Iran. Most often, something is published against Iran by the analysts of this newspaper in each volume which is taken into account as a role Model for other Arabian newspapers in terms of representation modes. In this study, 30 articles were selected to be reviewed and investigated so that the method of using the language strategies in the governing discourse is discussed. The present query answers this question: how is the ideology governing the author’ s mind reflected within the framework of discourse-based structures in the text and what are its language representations? The importance of the afore-mentioned question is that by achieving the answer, the gap existing in linguistic studies about the Arabic press is filled and explaining and elaborating the discourse strategies of this newspaper paves the way for more studies in the field of communications sciences for scholars and researchers. The methodology used in this study is the discourse analysis based on the Model presented by Teun Adrianus Van Dijk (2008). To analyze the text, Van Dijk has suggested two micro and macro levels each of which has its own special components. The macro level of text is, in fact, the abstract level by which the relationships between social actors and groups, institutes and organizations are described and analyzed within a society by incorporating the meta-language concepts including ideology, policy, power and dominance in discourse. The multilevel Model of Van Dijk allows the scholar to study his or her considered level without any interference with others. In other words, the capability to separate the strategies in six levels is another privilege which has driven the scholars toward choosing this Model. Therefore, 30 selected articles were studied on the basis of Van Dijk Model so that the discourse strategies of authors of Al-Hayat newspaper are determined at the level of meaning. Evaluating the findings of this study indicates the ideological performance of Al-Hayat newspaper authors in how to apply the text strategies to present the Iran issues. In accordance with Van Dijk viewpoint, emphasizing and strengthening the positive performance of insider group, i. e., Saudi Arabia and negative representation of outsider group, i. e., Iran, in Al-Hayat newspaper, has been put in the authors’ agenda as the macro-strategies of text. Many assumptions published within the news of this newspaper against Iran have generally introduced Iran as the threat for the security of region and on the contrary, Saudi Arabia as the country which tries to solve the problems and restore the security to the conflicted regions including Syria and Iraq. High rates of distancing and polarization indicate the strong tendency of authors for creating and emphasizing the confrontation of both countries in various issues. Most linguistic representations of discourse-based semantic structures in Al-Hayat newspaper are related to those strategies which clearly represent the positive role of insider and negative role of outsider and the authors do not show a high inclination to use the language structures like implication. Therefore, this viewpoint of function-oriented linguistics can confirm that language form, structure and arrangement are at the service of the role undertaken by them. In all 30 articles investigated in the present study, the ideology governing the authors’ minds has directly affected how to apply the text strategies. As Van Dijk, in his ideological square mentioned, it is the macro-level of text that determines which subject matters of six micro levels are used by the author/speaker and with what quality.

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is one of the new approaches to discourse analysis based on which metalanguage factors such as power, history and ideology are examined. This approach was formed in the second half of the twentieth century by some linguist scholars. Tune Van Dijk is one of the prominent pioneers who studies in this field. In his opinion, ideology can be represented through strategies called ideological square and based on bilateral contrasts between in group and out group. The discourse of Imam Ali (AS) in his letters to Mu'awiyah has a feature that can be scrutinized by this approach and via descriptive- analytical method. This research is crucial because it explains the audience the ideology of two opposing thoughts during the history of Islam through CDA.The findings indicate that the ideology of Imam Ali and Muawiyah has led to polarization between two groups, i.e. the contrast between "us" and "them". In explaining the differences between the two groups in identity, members and actions, the status of the ingroup (us) has been raised and the status of the outgroup (them) has been degraded. In addition, the nobility of ancestors, purity, believe in God, relation with goods and courage as the most important positive points of "us" and hypocrisy, disbelief, relation with evils and following the devil as the most important negative points of "them" are represented in Imam's discourse. Furthermore, it seems that "true belief in the religion of Islam" versus "deviation from the religion of Islam" are ideologies that can be achieved as a result of the contrast between Ali and Mu'awiyah.Among three mentioned approaches, critical discourse analysis (CDA) analyzes meta-language factors such as power, history and ideology. This approach was formed in the second half of the 20th century by the efforts of some linguistic scholars and theorists. Teun Van Dijk is one of the prominent pioneers of study and research in CDA. According to him, ideology in the discourse can be represented through strategies called ideological square, which is based on bilateral contrasts between in group and out group. Imam Ali’s letters to Muawiyah can be analyzed by a descriptive-analytical method based on Van Dijk’s ideological square as his discourse aligns with this approach.This research is crucial because the ideology of two opposing thoughts during the history of Islam is elaborated to the audience through CDA. The findings indicate that the ideology of Imam Ali and Muawiyah has led to polarization between two groups, i.e. the contrast between "us" and "them". In explaining the differences between the two groups in identity, members and actions, the status of the ingroup (us) has been raised and the status of the outgroup (them) has been degraded. In addition, the nobility of ancestors, purity, believe in God, relation with goods and courage as the most important positive points of "us" and hypocrisy, disbelief, relation with evils and following the devil as the most important negative points of "them" are represented in Imam's discourse. Furthermore, it seems that "true belief in the religion of Islam" versus "deviation from the religion of Islam" are ideologies that can be achieved as a result of the contrast between Ali and Mu'awiyah.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the implicit meaning making of the “self” and “other” in the upper secondary textbooks through Van Dijk discourse analysis. This study was a qualitative research based on discourse analysis with research population of all upper secondary textbooks (Humanities Branch). In this study purposeful sampling method was used. The method of data collection and analysis were documentary through the review of primary (seven textbooks) and secondary sources as well as review of words, text, and paragraphs, respectively. The findings reveal that the authors of selected textbooks, being aware of the ways of reproducing power in discourse, have highlighted self-positive identity and other negative aspects through the use of implicit meaning making strategy. According to the findings, it is suggested that curriculum planners and authors make a fundamental change in the content of textbooks through a better and deeper introduction of modern concepts related to the culture and civilization of Islam and Iran (self-positivity) instead of extreme emphasis on negative aspects of other cultures.